DIRECT DEMOCRACY AND PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: ESSENCE, LIMITS AND REGULATORY SUPPORT

Abstract

Introduction. The article presents a comprehensive study of direct and participatory (participatory democracy) models in the context of the contemporary European Union and its Member States. The author substantiates the relevance of the topic through the intensification of the democratic deficit, the rise of distrust in political elites, and the challenges of multilevel governance, which highlight the need for innovative approaches to citizen involvement in political decision-making processes. It is emphasized that the European experience is particularly valuable for analyzing modern forms of civic participation, as a wide range of instruments of direct democracy (referendums, citizens’ initiatives) and participatory democracy (citizens’ assemblies, participatory budgeting, European Citizens’ Initiative) have been introduced both at the level of EU countries and at the Union level over the past decades.

Summary of main research results. The article outlines the theoretical foundations of both models, provides their classification, reveals the basic institutional mechanisms, and conducts a historical and legal analysis of the evolution of instruments of direct and participatory democracy from ancient times to the contemporary European context. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the normative consolidation of participation mechanisms in EU treaties (in particular, Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty on European Union), the national constitutions of Member States, as well as recommendations of the Council of Europe and the Venice Commission (Code of Good Practice on Referendums, 2007). The analysis covers both classical and modern scholarly approaches, substantiating the significance of participatory democracy as an evolutionary stage in the development of political systems. Empirical examples are provided, including national referendums on EU issues (such as Brexit, ratification of the Maastricht Treaty, the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement), the functioning of citizens’ assemblies, and the impact of the European Citizens’ Initiative. The main findings of the study identify key trends in the development of participatory democracy in the EU: the growing role of inclusive and deliberative formats for citizen engagement; gradual integration of direct democracy tools within representative systems; expansion of digital practices for civic participation (online consultations, electronic platforms); and the recognition of the participation principle at the level of European treaties and national constitutions.

Conclusion. It is emphasized that the integration of direct and participatory democracy models should become a strategic direction in the development of modern European political systems. The author argues for the need for a harmonious combination of representative, direct, and participatory instruments to overcome the democratic deficit, enhance legitimacy, and improve the effectiveness of governance. It is concluded that the future of democracy in the EU depends on the ability of institutions to adapt participation mechanisms to new societal challenges, ensure genuine inclusiveness, openness, and effective citizen influence on policymaking. The results of this study may be used both for further scholarly research and for improving governance practices in the European Union Member States and at the level of European institutions.