Psychological Counseling and Psychotherapy

Conceptual Extensions of Client-Centered Psychotherapy

2025-08-08T10:35:01+00:00

The article is devoted to the analysis of client-centered psychotherapy (CCT), namely the key points of its growth. M. Cooper identified different variants of CCT through the metaphor of “flow” or “current”. In the CCT field, four streams meet, merge and dissociate again: ) non-directiveness of the psychotherapist, the client's expertise, and its actualization; 2) helping relationship, necessary and sufficient conditions for client change in psychotherapy, the psychotherapist's intervention has the status of a relationship rather than a technique; 3) experientiality / emotionality, based on Rogers' model of stress - detachment of self from its own experiences, alienation from the natural flow; 4) commitment to social justice, equality and caring interaction with others. The author notes that there may be other streams, which, flowing into the river of CCT, may become dominant there, or may occupy a rather modest place. Streams may also differ in terms of the time of their existence. It is clear that each stream has different theoretical and methodological justifications, and the question of what stream is relevant today, or in other words, what points of growth of SST determine the further development of this psychotherapeutic modality, is extremely relevant. Reflections on the theoretical development of FTAs can be based on two strategies: 1) expanding the conceptual structure of FTAs by drawing on resources external to FTAs; 2) expanding FTAs by drawing on resources internal to FTAs. In the second case, it is not a question of supplementing the FTA, but of its theoretical expansion, related to the reflection of its own theoretical foundations. According to C.S. Hall and G. Lindsey, C. Rogers was an “organismic theorist”, trusting in the rosiness of the naturalness, the naturalness of the therapeutic process. P. Ogden and J. Fisher point to the ongoing shift in the psychotherapeutic paradigm, away from “verbal, linguistic and explicit” towards “nonverbal, bodily and implicit processes”. This paradigm shift is determined by issues of psychotherapy effectiveness. In C. Rogers' description of the process in On Becoming a Person: A Therapists View of Psychotherapy (Boston, 1961), we find the combination of the words “sensory and visceral” six times, and the word “body” twice. The idea of wholeness is embedded in the text, where the body cannot be forgotten. This type of CCT is “bottom up.” CCT has the potential to work with deep brain formations and viscerosensory experiences. In CCT there are two types of healing processes: a causal process from the outside (relationship quality) and a supportive process from within. The second process is revealed through the theoretical extension of the “emotional balancing mechanism”, which is implicitly presented in C. Rogers' approach, and the description of emotional “blockages” formations. Each time gives birth to those theoretical movements that reflect it. In my opinion, today it is neuropsychotherapy and psychotherapeutic technology, as well as an interest in the body. Thus, the beacons of further development of client-centered therapy are the triad: “brain-body-therapeutic techniques”.

Features of Thematic Trends in Client Inquiries During Martial Law: Therapy Experiences in CCT

2025-09-29T12:37:20+00:00

Eight years of the Anti-Terrorist Operation, the Joint Forces Operation, and more than three years of the Russian Federation's full-scale invasion of Ukraine are the complex realities in which the Ukrainian people live. This article describes some topics of client requests in psychotherapeutic practice that arose as a result of people's long stay in these realities and the features of psychotherapeutic work with them in client-centered psychotherapy (CCT) by C.R. Rogers. The topics include: working with military personnel, uncertain loss, the effect of delayed life, forced distance between family members, and secondary traumatization in loved ones and relatives of military personnel.

When working with military personnel, it is important to take into account their orientation towards statutory relationships with their environment, which determines the importance of forming an expert position in the psychotherapist and establishing contact for a longer period of time, during which it is not recommended to focus on emotions and feelings, as is commonly understood in the classical understanding of working in the CCT. It is important to take into account the time for therapy, which is often limited, and to take into account certain features of using classical techniques of the method, and the "metaphor" technique is not recommended at all. In working with uncertain loss, the use of the idea of therapist accompaniment and minimal "interference" in decision-making and choices regarding loss is described, which does not traditionally have a single solution to the problem. In working with the topic of forced separation of family members, ideas for working with spouses and families in general, proposed by C.R. Rogers, are used. Work on preventing secondary trauma in family members of military personnel is associated with expanding the spectrum of ego-syntonic personality structures and forming a mature position. Using the resourcefulness of "specific" relationships described by C.R. Rogers, the idea of "here and now", non-interference in the client's conscious search for himself, a fully functioning personality, are used when working with the effect of deferred life. The idea of complementarity between the concepts of "fully functioning personality" and "post-traumatic growth" is also mentioned.

Application of Subsensory Influence Technology for Psychocorrectional Work Among Patients with Depressive Disorders

2025-08-08T10:26:22+00:00

The aim of the study was to test and assess the effectiveness of the method of complex visual-perceptive subsensory psychocorrectional influence for conducting psychocorrectional work with patients with depressive disorders. We have created a special method of visual-perceptive subsensory psychocorrectional influence, which is based on the use of transient subsensory visual stimuli. 52 patients with various clinical forms of depressive disorders (F31.3; F32.0; F32.1; F33.0; F33.1; F33.11; F34.1; F43.1; F43.2) were examined, the main group consisted of 28 patients, the comparison group consisted of 24 patients. Patients of the main group received, along with treatment and rehabilitation according to clinical protocols and guidelines approved by the Ministry of Health of Ukraine, sessions of complex subsensory influence, in patients of the comparison group subsensory stimulation was not performed. To assess the effectiveness of subsensory psychocorrectional influence, a psychodiagnostic examination was carried out before the start of psychocorrection and after its completion. The following psychodiagnostic methods were used: the “Self-Esteem” method, the Resilience Scale, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), “Tolerance for Uncertainty”, the Zimbardo Time Perspective Questionnaire. Patients who underwent subsensory psychocorrectional influence showed a significant increase in resilience, a more pronounced reduction in depressive and anxiety symptoms, a decrease in fatalistic attitude towards the present; in addition, the perception of one’s own future improved. Thus, the use of complex subsensory psychocorrection in patients with depressive disorders contributes to a reliable reduction of symptoms of four main psychological clusters as basic target objects for conducting psychocorrection work, namely: reduction of depressive and anxiety symptoms (cluster "Emotional disorders"); increase in the level of resilience (cluster "Masadaptive-behavioral changes"); harmonization of self-esteem (cluster "Perception of the world and self-image"); reduction of fatalistic attitude towards the present. The perception of one's future also improves (cluster "Chronoperception").

Hypersexuality: Norm or Pathology?

2025-08-08T10:44:03+00:00

The article examines whether hypersexuality should be regarded as norm or pathology. It is emphasized that despite the fact that the presence of such a phenomenon as pathological hypersexuality cannot be denied some authors speak against its and sexual addiction inclusion into classification systems due to the following circumstances: (1) allegedly now there is an insufficient number of verified actual data for establishing diagnostic criteria in order to identify this behaviour as a mental disorder, and allegedly studies have not revealed yet whether such pathological symptoms, which are consistent with these marks, as anxiety and the problem with control of impulses are really connected with excessive sexual behaviour; (2) consideration of people with hypersexuality as having mental pathology allegedly just reflects cultural dislike for an unusual sexual behaviour, while labelling of sexual drives as “extreme” simply stigmatize those people who do not meet norms of their culture or norms of a group of persons of the same age; (3) compulsive sexual behaviour was qualified as abnormal by “moralists from medicine” who act as “civil inspectors” and enforce their orthodox views; (4) the oftener psychologists and lawyers declare some or other forms of behaviour uncontrolled compulsions the fewer people are held liable for their actions, even if these actions harm other people; (5) the opinion is expressed that there are no clear differences between normal and pathological levels of sexual desires and behaviour.The author believes that hypersexuality can be both physiological and pathological. Sometimes in certain cases it is really difficult to distinguish whether one should designate hypersexuality as norm or pathology. The article informs that instead of “Excessive sexual drive” (ICD-10, code F52.7) ICD-11 introduced code 6C72 “Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder”. Its characteristic is given. However, it is reported that there are currently several conceptualizations of pathological hypersexuality: obsessive-compulsive, addictive, caused by impairment of impulse control, as well as the model, which was determined by the author and connected with persistent genital arousal disorder and restless genital syndrome. In the author’s opinion, each of the above mentioned conceptualizations (models) of pathological hypersexuality is useful in certain cases because better than others it characterizes the state of the definite patient. These models can “interlace/intersect” in the same patient, and their manifestations can replace one another in the dynamics of the course of hypersexuality. The author believes that attempts to deny the presence of pathological hypersexuality misinterpret the reality, are unscientific and not consistent with numerous clinical observations.

Childhood Trauma as a Factor of Aggressiveness in Adulthood

2025-08-08T10:38:06+00:00

The article is devoted to the theoretical, empirical and diagnostic study of the determination of aggression in adulthood by indicators of negative childhood experience. The purpose of the presented material is to theoretically substantiate and empirically clarify the deterministic influence of childhood trauma on the manifestations of aggression in adulthood. The basis is the method of bibliographic review of theoretical and empirical sources on this issue and empirical methods using diagnostic strictly formalised and low-formalised tools and statistical procedures (data standardisation, correlation analysis, method of determining the correlation of correlograms). The results include a presentation of the methodological basis of this problem within the framework of classical psychoanalysis and theories of object relations, psychophysiological and cognitive concepts of human trauma. A programme of empirical and diagnostic study of the deterministic influence of childhood trauma on the manifestations of aggression in adulthood is developed and the research sample is substantiated. It has been empirically explicated that for respondents with the form of negative experience ‘destructive attitude of others’ such forms of aggressiveness as ‘guilt’ and ‘suspicion’ are inherent, which, in combination with personality indicators, form a specific emotionally avoidant symptom complex that reflects emotional stress, depressed mood due to loss of motivation, pessimism and avoidance of interaction with others; and for respondents with a form of negative experience of ‘living in a dysfunctional family’, such forms of aggression as ‘irritation’ and ‘guilt’ were dominant, which, in combination with personality indicators, are framed in an affective-tense symptom complex reflecting a low threshold of emotional excitability, frequent negative emotions, intolerance to external influences, interpersonal difficulties and internal discomfort. The conclusions indicate that the proposed research format is a productive addition to psychological counselling practice.

Questionnaire For Diagnosing the Emotional Component of Essential Self-Regulation (QDES-2-E) and its Interpretation

2025-09-08T12:44:21+00:00

The article presents the author-developed psychodiagnostic method – “Questionnaire for Diagnosing the Emotional Component of Essential Self-Regulation (QDES-2-E)”, designed to study the emotional dimension of essential self-regulation in personality. The concept of essential self-regulation is understood as an individual's ability to realize their inherent tendency toward self-actualization, maintain authenticity, inner coherence, and a sense of meaning in various life circumstances, relying not only on functional control mechanisms but primarily on the connection with personal values, deep needs, and essential identity. This approach is relevant in the context of studying personal growth, self-realization, overcoming existential crises, and preserving psychological well-being. The method allows the exploration of four types of emotional states: affect (intense, often impulsive arousal), ambivalence (emotional contradiction, inner conflict), optimum (a state of balance, harmony, integration), and apathy (lack of emotional involvement, detachment). Each of these modes is assessed across three key areas of functioning: general (existential), professional, and family. The test consists of 6 situational blocks that simulate typical life challenges; each block contains 8 response options. Respondents select from 3 to 5 options that best reflect their emotional reactions. This format allows for the registration of the multidimensionality of emotional experience and the identification of an individual self-regulation profile. The method is applicable in scientific research, psychotherapeutic and counseling practice, educational settings, and psychological support of personal development. The article presents the theoretical foundations of the method, its structure, scale design principles, logic of result interpretation, and practical applications for identifying personal strengths, vulnerabilities, and the potential for emotional integration.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Questionnaireа Diagnosing the Emotional Component of Essential Self-Regulation (ODES-2-E)

2025-09-18T13:52:10+00:00

This article presents a psychometric evaluation of the questionnaire designed to assess the emotional component of Essential Self-Regulation" (ODES-2-E), designed to study the deep mechanisms of emotional functioning in personality. The theoretical foundation of the method is the concept of essential self-regulation, which is understood as a person’s ability to maintain authenticity, internal integrity, and meaningful coherence in response to external influences, while remaining in contact with their own values, needs, and tendency toward self-actualization. Thus, the method aims not only to assess the functional level of regulation but also to diagnose the emotional and existential core of personality. The instrument includes four scales: affect (emotional arousal, impulsivity), ambivalence (emotional contradiction), optimum (internal coherence, balance), and apathy (emotional detachment, exhaustion). Each scale is assessed within three life domains: general, professional, and family. The structure consists of six situational blocks, each presenting eight response options. Respondents choose 3–5 options that best reflect their emotional reaction, allowing the multidimensionality of emotional experience to be captured. Psychometric analysis indicates satisfactory reliability of the scales (Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.71 to 0.78), high item discrimination, and 75% agreement with the theoretical model (according to factor analysis). Construct validity is confirmed by statistically significant correlations with other psychological instruments: Hall’s Emotional Intelligence Test, Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale, and Rabinovich’s Four-Modal Emotional Questionnaire. Scale standardization enables interpretation of results both in percentages and in raw scores using normative thresholds. Additionally, gender differences were analyzed: women scored higher on the ambivalence scale, while men scored higher on the apathy scale, suggesting possible differences in emotional engagement and regulation. The method is suitable for individual assessment, scientific research, psychotherapy, education, and training. It allows not only for diagnosing the state of emotional self-regulation but also for identifying personal resources, areas for development, and directions for personal growth.

Emotional Resistance In The Experience War Witness Trauma

2025-08-08T10:42:17+00:00

The article is devoted to the empirical substantiation of emotional resilience in the experience of war witness trauma on a sample of student youth. The purpose of the presented material is to empirically explicate the peculiarities of emotional resilience in the experience of war witness trauma. The basis is the methods of a bibliographic review of empirical sources on this issue, from 2015 to 2024, and empirical methods using diagnostic methods (Connor-Davidson Resilience Inventory Scale (CD-RISC), Symptom Questionnaire (SLR-90-R); Rogers-Diamond Socio-Psychological Adaptation Questionnaire, Plutchik-Kellerman-Conte Questionnaire; K. Izard; R. Janov-Bulman Basic Beliefs Scale; R. Tadeshi and L. Calhoun Posttraumatic Growth Questionnaire); statistical tools (data standardisation or z-transformation procedure, discriminant analysis, nonparametric Mann-Whitney test, factor analysis, multiple regression analysis). The results include a methodological presentation of theoretical assumptions about the conditionality of the experience of war witness trauma by real indicators of a person's mental state and indicators of emotional stability, which in the psychological alliance is a powerful personal resource for surviving the emotionally stressful situation of war. The developed empirical research programme and the set of methods used for mathematical processing of the research results made it possible to identify personal symptom complexes of emotional resistance for students with high and medium levels of stress resistance. The psychological profile of students with a high level of stress resistance is determined by the adaptive qualities of flexibility of thinking and behaviour, self-organisation and prosocial interaction with other people; and the psychological profile of students with an average level of stress resistance is characterised by purposefulness, a pronounced sense of justice, awareness of personal responsibility for life circumstances and the desire for dominance. The conclusions indicate that the results obtained can be successfully used by psychologists in the education system to monitor the psychological recovery and post-traumatic growth of students.