The Journal of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Series History

Artaxias II and the Murder of the Romans in Greater Armenia

2025-07-25T15:55:12+00:00

In 30 BC, by the order of the king of Armenia Artaxias II, all Romans in the kingdom were killed. However, this crime had virtually no effect on the reign of the new king of Armenia. A significant Roman presence in Armenia during this period is confirmed neither by material sources nor by numismatic evidence. More rational may be the hypothesis about Roman merchants who fell victim to the Armenian sword, but their presence in Greater Armenia is just an assumption. In our view, there were simply not enough Roman citizens for a massacre in Armenia. Most likely, if there were victims (and this cannot be denied, since it was Artaxias who seized his father's kingdom), then they were Roman soldiers who might not have had time to leave the kingdom to help Antony. Given the means of communication available in this era, this would not be surprising. But the king of Armenia simply did not have the opportunity to carry out a massacre similar to that perpetrated by Mithridates in Asia. In our view, the story of a murder of Roman citizens by the order of Artaxias II, which, for objective reasons, could not have been a mass event, can be attributed to Roman propaganda, which was preparing the ground for a possible forceful removal of the king of Armenia. However, the refusal of Augustus to take active steps in the East in the 20s BC apparently weakened the intensity of the spread of rumors about a massacre of Romans. The method of overthrowing Artaxias II no longer required the popularization of stories about the murder of Roman citizens, which probably did not go beyond Italy and found virtually no reflection in the sources. At the same time, Augustus himself probably believed that propaganda had formed such a negative image of Artaxias II in the Roman eyes that the possibility of turning Greater Armenia into a Roman province could be openly discussed.

Notaries in the Byzantine Services Market, 4th to 9th Centuries

2025-07-25T15:56:31+00:00

The issue of differentiation and specialization within the Byzantine notariat, particularly its integration into the service market, remains an understudied area. This article examines categories of private legal acts, focusing on the most common among them - sale contracts - as well as the clerks responsible for their drafting, the locations where documents were formalized, and the organization of notarial offices. Notaries operating in the market sphere were referred to by various titles (with slight differences in specialization): notarius, semiographos, nomikos, ypographeus, tachygraphos, taboullarios, symbolographos, tabellion, grammateis, and kankellarios. Narrative and legislative sources allow for the identification of their classification requirements, including property and age qualifications, legal status (free or semi-free), functions, document-drafting procedures, and the intensity of their work. Using quantitative methods, it has been calculated that to achieve a monthly income of approximately 30 gold nomismata, a notary would need to draft at least 60 written acts with a minimum fee of 12 keratia per act or around 10–15 documents with fees of 2–3 nomismata each. The intensity of notarial work appears consistent with the level of economic activity in early medieval Byzantium and its economy. On average, during the 20 working days per month (excluding Sundays and holidays), a single notarial office handled no more than two to three agreements or contracts daily. Even in populous Constantinople by the late 9th century, 24 notarial offices sufficed to meet demand, collectively serving 50–70 significant clients daily during workdays. Most Byzantines engaged with notarial services relatively infrequently, primarily for transactions exceeding the value of one litra of gold. Nevertheless, the annual total amounts to an impressive figure: approximately 15,000–20,000 notarized documents produced by Constantinopolitan offices alone, excluding provincial notarial activity.

From the Peasants’ War to Thirty Years’ War: Religious and Political Aspects of Warfare in Germany During the Confessional Age

2025-07-25T15:57:10+00:00

The paper explores the confessional component of military conflicts during the Reformation Age in Germany. Analysis of the religious and political dimensions of warfare reveals an intricate interplay between faith and governance that shaped the course of military conflicts. This study underscores the necessity of viewing these conflicts through multiple lenses. The term “confessional wars” more accurately encapsulates the nature of these conflicts, such as the Peasants’ War and the Schmalkaldic Wars, culminating in the devastating Thirty Years’ War; it highlights the religious motivation that often underpinned warfare. The confessionalization movement produced new Christian denominations, particularly Lutheranism, which not only redefined spiritual beliefs but also significantly influenced the socio-political landscape of the Holy Roman Empire. The ideological framing of military service during this period illustrates the Reformation's profound impact on the military ethos. Martin Luther and other Wittenberg reformers provided moral and spiritual guidance to soldiers, advocating for a sense of duty aligned with divine justice. This intertwining of faith and warfare not only legitimized military actions but also fostered a unique identity among the Protestant soldiers, as seen in the adoption of hymns that resonated with their struggles. Furthermore, the political ramifications of these conflicts were significant. The shifting allegiances and power dynamics among Lutheran princes, particularly in the wake of the Schmalkaldic Wars, reveal the complexities of governance during a time of religious upheaval. The eventual establishment of the Peace of Passau and the subsequent Peace of Augsburg marked crucial milestones in the quest for religious tolerance and stability within the empire. However, as history would show, these agreements did not wholly resolve the underlying tensions, leading to renewed conflicts in the early 17th century.

The West Fortification of the Bilsk Hillfort in the First Half of the 17th Century

2025-07-25T15:58:31+00:00

The Bilsk hillfort is a massive settlement site of the Left-Bank Dnipro forest-steppe. Its fortifications were built by a Scythian population; after the Scythians left the site, it remained uninhabited for a long time. The fortifications covered a large area and for several centuries were home and refuge to small settlements of Slavic farmers, but they were never fully inhabited. In the late 16th century, saltpeter mining became widespread in the southeastern provinces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of the hubs of saltpeter production in Left-Bank Ukraine was the town of Myrhorod, where the center of the so-called Saltpeter State was located. On the site of the West Fortification of the Bilsk hillfort, saltpeter mining began in the early 17th century. There were large barrows and earthworks in this sector with a high natural saltpeter content. Initially, temporary camps were established near the Bilsk hillfort, where workers lived during the warm season. Later, a small stationary settlement, possibly a colony of saltpeter workers, appeared there. In the 1630s and 1640s, the Bilsk hillfort came to the attention of the interstate commission to fix the border between the Kyiv Voivodeship and Putyvl District. Initially, it was proposed to divide the area of the hillfort in half, but later it was left as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1646, the middle reaches of the Vorskla River were occupied by the private army of Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. At this time, the temporary settlement near the West Fortification was moved east, to the source of the small Bilsk Spring. Here it was transformed within a few years from a sloboda colony into an unfortified town that had its own self-government, and in 1648 became part of the Poltava Cossack Regiment.

The Letters of M. M. Kovalevsky: Little-Known Details of the Scholar’s Biography

2025-07-25T15:59:03+00:00

The article analyzes a broad selection of letters by M. M. Kovalevsky that reveal interesting and little-known details of the scholar’s public activities and private life. In his correspondence, Kovalevsky shared his life and academic plans and reflected on various historical, legal, political, sociological, and economic issues. Kovalevsky wrote letters to other academics, writers, and public figures for various reasons: asking for help on behalf of others, soliciting contributions for journals, encyclopedias, or the newspaper (Strana) that he edited, sending new books and magazines, sharing information about new publications, extending invitations to participate in collective projects, informing his correspondents about political events in Russia, France, the USA, or any other country that served as his permanent or temporary home at the time, and more. The correspondence of this internationally renowned scholar — already widely recognized during his lifetime — served not only as a means of communication. It also provides valuable insights into his private life and his active, multifaceted activities in various countries around the world. In his letters, M. M. Kovalevsky reflects on his personal life journey, evaluates the words and actions of his friends, relatives, and acquaintances, and offers critical observations on the domestic and foreign policies of the Russian Empire and other states. This body of epistolary sources sheds ample light on the role of Kovalevsky as a prominent scholar and public figure in the social, political, and academic life of the Russian Empire and other countries. The article also provides an overview of the external characteristics of Kovalevsky’s correspondence, highlights the distinctive qualities of the scholar’s epistolary style, and notes the high literary merit of his letters. An overview of the existing editions of Kovalevsky’s epistolary legacy is also given. Fragments of several letters preserved in the archives of Ukraine, Russia, and France appear in print for the first time. The author argues that we could benefit from new publications of Kovalevsky’s most valuable letters.

Between Politics and University Life: The Student Population of Lviv in the Interwar Period

2025-07-25T15:59:45+00:00

The article is concerned with the student body of the Jan Kazimierz University in Lviv in the interwar period. At that time, Poles, Ukrainians, and Jews, as well as Romanians and Russians, studied at the university. The University of Lviv was one of the most important academic centers in the Second Polish Republic. Students had strong political beliefs during that time; often they were members of political factions and groups that operated inside and outside the walls of educational establishments. This led to the development of conflicts at the university. One phenomenon that had an impact on how interpersonal conflicts arose was the development of a strong nationalist ideology in Ukraine during the late 1930s. Other factors contributing to conflicts on the basis of nationality included the difficult economic situation of students at that time and the personal attitude of some members of the intelligentsia. The policy of the Polish state and the general political and economic situation in the city and in the country also had a significant impact on relations in the academic milieu. In the 1920s, just after Poland had regained independence, the Polish-Ukrainian conflict intensified at the university, which led to the establishment of the Ukrainian Secret University. Later, the struggles of nationalist Polish youth for the introduction of the numerus clausus principle at the university, and then of a bench ghetto for Jewish students, became more intensive. The objective of this article is to characterise the academic milieu of the Jan Kazimierz University, emphasising the role of politics as a factor shaping relations between students of different nationalities.

The Clergy of the Kharkiv Region at the Outset of Collectivization (Second Half of 1929 – End of 1930)

2025-07-25T16:00:25+00:00

The paper is concerned with the situation of the clergy of the Kharkiv region in the initial phases of the forced collectivization of agriculture. The analysis is based primarily on archival sources, many of which are introduced for the first time, as well periodicals, published thematic collections of documents, and academic literature on the subject. An overview of the historiography leads the author to argue that this subject has been insufficiently and superficially studied, and a more thorough engagement with it is overdue. The paper discusses the anti-religious and anti-church policy of the Bolshevik state, targeting all denominations and aimed at sharply weakening the influence of religion and ecclesiastical institutions in society during the forced total collectivization. The legal status of clergy and religious communities in these new conditions is analyzed. The methods used by the Bolshevik authorities to achieve the goal set by the Communist Party leadership are considered, including a sharp increase in repressions against clergy, arrests, dekulakization, exile to remote (northern and eastern) regions of the Soviet state, imprisonment in concentration camps, intimidation, abuse of clergy, prohibition (or obstruction) of religious rites, administrative closure of churches and houses of prayer, the so-called “labor mobilizations” of clerics, active use of punitive taxation to economically stifle clergy, a sharp increase in mandatory insurance payments imposed on churches and houses of prayer, exclusion of clerics from any possibility of receiving social assistance from the state and their discrimination on “class grounds”, and more. The paper also sheds light on the varied forms of protest and resistance by the clergy and believers of the Kharkiv region against the anti-church policy of the Bolsheviks in rural areas and on the repressions against clerics.

The Organizational Maturation of International Congresses of Historical Sciences (1920s-1930s)

2025-07-25T16:01:18+00:00

The article is concerned with the organization of international congresses of historical sciences in the 1920s and 1930s. The author identifies the organizational innovations and factors that led to the transformation of this platform into the largest form of academic communication for the global community of historians. Analysis of the sources leads the author to argue that the key roles in the organizational evolution of international congresses of historical sciences were played by the geopolitical situation in the aftermath of World War I and the dynamic development of historical scholarship around the world in the interwar period. The article pays special attention to the establishment of the International Committee of Historical Sciences as a structure that promoted communication between national communities of historians within the congress space, and to its activities aimed at reducing the destructive influence of political and ideological factors on the work of these forums. In particular, it is found that the efforts of the International Committee of Historical Sciences in the 1920s and 1930s contributed to the reintegration of historians from the Central Powers and the USSR into the global research community and helped expand the reach of congresses to involve researchers from previously unrepresented countries. Based on the analysis of the programs of the international congresses of historical sciences that convened in the interwar era, the author establishes that the modernization of approaches to the structuring of the system of sections was greatly influenced by the processes of specialization of historical knowledge and institutionalization of new areas of historical research. The author concludes that the innovations introduced into the work of international congresses of historical sciences in the interwar era were far-reaching and proved essential for the organizational maturation of this form of academic exchange.

History of Medieval Asia in Academician Ye. Kosminsky’s “Stalin’s Primer”

2025-07-25T16:01:53+00:00

Soviet textbooks of world history rarely attract the attention of researchers. However, this category of sources can shed light on various aspects of the development of historical scholarship, education, and culture. New school textbooks were instrumental in ensuring the overall success of Stalin’s educational reforms of the mid-1930s. Academician Ye. Kosminsky's textbook of medieval history for grades 6 to 7 of secondary school was certainly innovative. He was the first to offer a world history course that covered the Middle Ages in both Europe and Asia, as well as the medieval history of the peoples of the USSR. It became a “Stalin’s primer” — a classic model textbook for the Soviet mass school. (Sections devoted to the history of Asia also appeared in Kosminsky’s textbooks published in the late 1940s to early 1950s.) Kosminsky was forced to prove his loyalty to the regime through promoting the ideological postulates of “Marxist theory” and propaganda of pan-Slavism, anti-Westernism, and anticlericalism. He established a “hierarchy” of Eastern peoples. The “progressive” role among them was assigned to the non-Russian ethnicities of the USSR, led by the Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, and the peoples of Soviet Central Asia. The author included the Arabs, Indians, and Chinese among the “advanced” peoples of the East. As for nomadic peoples (the Huns, Mongols, Manchus), as well as the Ottoman Turks and Japanese, they were for the most part judged negatively. The initial experience of teaching the medieval history of Asian countries and peoples proved difficult, mainly because of the impossibility of squeezing the civilizations of Asia into the Marxist theory of socio-economic formations. Kosminsky had to adapt the historical realities of the Middle Ages to the political and ideological tenets and requirements of Communist party censorship. The textbook also suffered from noticeable structural deficiencies. As a result, countries and nations “disappeared” from the historical context, a broad range of facts and phenomena were distorted, and the living fabric of socio-political and cultural developments in medieval Asia was disrupted.

From Religion to Medicine: The Evolution of American Scholarly Perspectives on the Cult of the Ancient Greek God of Healing

2025-07-25T16:02:27+00:00

The paper analyzes the development of the American historiography of the cult of Asclepius from 1945 to the present. It explores the contribution of American scholars to the study of the religious aspect of the cult and their engagement with its multifaceted nature as a social, religious, and medical phenomenon of the ancient world. The paper outlines the evolution of methodological perspectives, including the shift from the text-centered studies by E. Edelstein and L. Edelstein to interdisciplinary methods introduced by B. Wickiser and G. Renberg. The author considers the innovative approaches to the integration of archaeological, epigraphic, and textual sources that enabled a more comprehensive understanding of the cult. Considerable attention is given to studies of the cult’s political and social dimensions, interaction with early Christianity, and the role of ritual in forming individual and collective identity. Analyses of the incubation ritual, votive sacrifices, and the cult’s adaptation to socio-cultural change are also examined. Researchers stressed the cult’s role in societal recovery after crises, in strengthening social cohesion, restoring civic identity, and ensuring spiritual balance in ancient communities. The paper further discusses research on the cult’s interaction with other religions, particularly early Christianity, and analyzes how this competition influenced the shaping of religious identity and cultural heritage. Religious rituals are emphasized as crucial to political stability, social cohesion, and maintaining continuity in the face of evolving societal dynamics and cultural challenges. The study advances our understanding of ancient religion, the significance of the cult of Asclepius, and the global contribution of American historiography. It opens new perspectives for interdisciplinary research on political, socio-cultural, and religious factors influencing the cult’s formation, development, and enduring relevance in diverse historical contexts.

Reflections on the History of “Classical Archaeology” in the United States

2025-07-25T16:02:59+00:00

The focus of the paper is on the book by the American scholar Stephen L. Dyson Ancient Marbles to American Shores: Classical Archaeology in the United States (1998), devoted to the emergence and shaping of this field in the United States. The author of this fundamental work is a professor of classical philology, president of the American Institute of Archaeology from 1995 to 1998, professor of Wesleyan University and the State University of New York at Buffalo, and over the course of his career director of numerous research projects in Italy. His research interests cover a wide range of issues in the history and archaeology of Rome and Roman Italy. He has taught numerous courses for undergraduates and graduate students, including those of a historiographical nature. The book in question is, without exaggeration, the first synthetic work tackling the complex process of the formation of classical archaeology in the United States. Dyson analyzes the work of leading American scholars, describes their achievement, particularly fruits of the study of ancient Greek and Roman sites and remains, and the role of institutions such as museums and universities in the professionalization of classical archaeology in the US. Some of Dyson’s arguments concerning the stages, trends, issues, and prospects in the development of classical archaeology in the US provoke reflection, including on the state of affairs in Ukrainian research and education. In particular, the author of the paper draws attention to the importance of intergenerational continuity in this kind of scholarship, the role of state institutions and programs, and the state of higher education in history, where such specialists are trained. The paper concludes with some considerations regarding the future of classical archaeology in Ukraine.

Contribution of Ukrainian Specialists to the Reconstruction of Tashkent

2025-07-25T16:03:32+00:00

The purpose of the paper is to introduce previously unknown and unexplored facts from the history of the reconstruction of Tashkent after the 1966 earthquake, drawing on documents from the Central State Archive of Science and Technology (TsDNTA) of Ukraine. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity and the use of special historical methods. The historical-comparative method was employed in examining the reconstruction of the capital of Uzbekistan in the context of the history of Soviet urban planning. The historical-systemic method allowed the author to analyze interactions between various agents of reconstruction not just as an episode of urban planning and development, but also as an example of the mechanisms of official decision-making and execution in the USSR and of coordinating the actions of union and republican bodies. The historical-genetic (longitudinal) method, along with the method of cartographic visualization, made it possible to trace the development of Tashkent’s public infrastructure and to identify and illustrate general trends in Soviet residential construction. The paper’s chief contribution rests in the source value of the previously unexplored and unpublished documents from the TsDNTA of Ukraine that illuminate the history of the reconstruction of Tashkent, as well as history of Soviet urban planning in the 1960s and 1970s more generally. This material is brought to the attention of the research community for the first time. Given the growing academic interest in the history of the late Soviet city, the study of documents from the holdings of the TsDNTA of Ukraine relating particularly to urban planning in Soviet Ukraine is a promising avenue of inquiry. The new evidence allows us to enrich and amend our knowledge about the contribution of Ukrainian specialists, particularly from Kharkiv, to the reconstruction of Tashkent, identify the organizations involved in this undertaking, explore the specifics of Soviet interagency relations, and compare the new Tashkent “microdistricts” with the urban residential neighborhoods that were being actively developed in large cities of Ukraine at the time.

Ukrainian-Polish Cooperation in Cultural Heritage Rescue During the Russo-Ukrainian War (The Case of Kharkiv)

2025-07-25T16:04:08+00:00

The paper describes and analyzes the principal forms, methods, and results of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation in the sphere of heritage protection after February 24, 2022. The main focus is on the Kharkiv region, because it has suffered the greatest destruction of cultural and historical heritage as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian War. The key body of sources for the study is a group of eight interviews with members of the management and staff of such structural units of universities and local self-government as provided organizational support and coordination for joined efforts between Ukrainian and Polish specialists during the war, as well as heads of archives, museums, and libraries that cooperated with Polish partners in saving heritage sites. The interviews were recorded from September to November 2024 and are deposited for permanent storage at the Central State Archive of Science and Technology (TsDNTA) of Ukraine. The article outlines the process of establishing communication between heritage conservationists in Ukraine and Poland after the start of the full-scale Russian invasion, analyzes the hierarchy of the institutions involved, and characterizes the main forms of support provided by Polish heritage conservationists to their Ukrainian colleagues (humanitarian assistance in the form of equipment and materials necessary to secure collections and ensure the autonomous operation of institutions in the conditions of unstable power supply; provision of equipment and advisory support for digitizing collections; help with publishing activity; organization of joint conferences, seminars, and internships; advisory assistance in the implementation of international projects; joint exhibitions). The author describes what tactical and strategic tasks have been accomplished thanks to this support and considers the question of what shared Ukrainian-Polish platforms of specialized interaction may emerge or receive further development as a result of this cooperation.

Protecting Ukrainian Cultural Heritage During the Russo-Ukrainian War: Reflections of Experts for the Project “City and War”

2025-07-25T16:04:48+00:00

The Russo-Ukrainian War has led to the greatest destruction and damage to Ukraine’s cultural heritage since World War II. The war became a trigger for a rethinking of the meaning of cultural heritage in Ukrainian society, and caused a “turn” in attitudes towards culture more generally. Recognizing the complexity and importance of these developments, in May 2022 a group of researchers at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University launched the academic project “City and War”. One of the project’s objectives was to capture the views of cultural experts on the ongoing processes of destruction, preservation, and reinterpretation of cultural heritage in Ukraine driven by the Russian military aggression. To accomplish this task, the project team is collecting in-depth interviews with representatives of the Ukrainian expert community. The paper analyzes experts’ reflections on several key issues: 1) systemic problems in cultural heritage protection in Ukraine; 2) challenges faced by the field during the Russo-Ukrainian War, in particular since the full-scale Russian invasion on February 24, 2022; 3) strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage in wartime; 4) the use of digital technologies in cultural heritage protection during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The article concludes that the interviews collected for the project offer testimony important for understanding the pre-war specifics of the field and the current state and future prospects of cultural heritage preservation and reinterpretation in Ukraine. At the same time, it is noted that cultural experts should be more proactive in broadcasting their vision of the pressing problems of cultural heritage protection, and should strive to make their views more accessible to the general public. It is important that experts effectively interact with other social actors and that they not only react to public demand, but also take on a more assertive role in the public discussion around heritage and, to a certain extent, guide the public opinion.

Religion and National Consciousness through the Prism of Biographical Studies

2025-07-26T18:36:48+00:00

The review shows that Ihor Medvid’s monograph “Prophet or Heretic? The Religious Worldview of Ivan Franko and His Relations with Clergy” offers novel insights into Franko’s biography, the intellectual history of Ukraine in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, history of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and related subjects. The reviewer calls for further research into Franko’s religiosity, particularly through the application of content analysis and the methodological framework of the Cambridge school of intellectual history. Promising avenues for more in-depth study also include Franko’s perspectives on Freemasonry, Gnosticism, and Buddhism. The review further considers the influence of the constructivist theory of the nation, adopted by Medvid, on the book’s arguments and conclusions. Finally, the reviewer notes the need for a more precise conceptualization of the term “modernity”, which is employed in the monograph to delineate the context within which Franko’s religious worldview was formed.

Cultural Diversity in the Urban Environment: Challenges and Prospects

2025-07-26T13:40:32+00:00

The book under review is devoted to the performing arts in several cities distinguished by their diverse cultural heritage. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between the genesis of cultural phenomena in the mosaic of urban communities and the formation of a heterogeneous urban environment. The main idea of the book is that the cultural diversity of the urban environment, represented primarily by the performing arts, takes shape as a result of complex processes of transformation and social conflict and serves as the foundation for the creative growth of urban communities. The book is of considerable interest to the Ukrainian reader, as it offers an original view of the role of culture in urban development, which may be useful for the post-war reconstruction of Ukrainian cities.

Chronicle of Events at the Faculty of History for 2024

2025-07-25T16:06:41+00:00

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